The Narrator in the story Girl by Jamaica Kincaid Essay

The Narrator in the story Girl by Jamaica Kincaid - Essay Example Although the narrator is not male, the things she says to her daughter portray what is expected in a patriarchal society. The mother tries to raise her daughter in the same structure that she herself was raised in. she does not seem to question some of the expectations that she has on her daughter, she simply agrees with them and expects her daughter to do the same. To the reader, it is obvious that much of what the narrator teaches to her daughter is oppression, the same kind of oppression that Hook addresses in her essay (Hook 502). The narrator teaches her daughter on matters of how to obediently serve her husband and perform all the household chores that are associated with the house wife. However, she does not seem to appreciate that her daughter has and might have her own desires as a woman and as a human being. The type of nurturing that the narrator mother is trying to force on her daughter will influence her (the daughter) socially, psychologically and economically. In every thing that she does, she will always remember that society expects her to act in a certain way and that her needs do not matter. By portraying the narrator as a proponent of female oppression that is dominant in many patriarchal societies, Kincaid shows that in many societies today, women are bound to their husbands as well as their domestic affairs. The narrator tells the girl to â€Å" cook pumpkin fritters in very sweet oil, this is how to behave in the presence of men, this is how to bully a man†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kincaid). The narrator is like a drill sergeant, her work is to instill what she believes to be acceptable behavior to her daughter. When the daughter tries to intervene or ask a question, the mother ignores her and continues with her indoctrination. This... The paper dwells upon the narration of the story. By portraying the narrator as a proponent of female oppression that is dominant in many patriarchal societies, Kincaid shows that in many societies today, women are bound to their husbands as well as their domestic affairs. The narrator tells the girl to â€Å" cook pumpkin fritters in very sweet oil, this is how to behave in the presence of men, this is how to bully a man†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kincaid). The narrator is like a drill sergeant, her work is to instill what she believes to be acceptable behavior to her daughter. When the daughter tries to intervene or ask a question, the mother ignores her and continues with her indoctrination. This is symbolic of how women are expected to accept their roles without asking too many questions. They are not expected to venture outside their normal household chores. This is a clear indication of the difference between gender roles commonly found in many patriarchal societies.

Science and Technology in Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Science and Technology in Education - Essay Example The journal article has introduced very important points which could provide readers more understanding of the teaching process. One of the key points was about recognizing that teaching is individual and how important is to reflect and maintain reflection as a tool for doing so as proposed by Flick. The teacher who recognizes individual differences among his pupils has an edge over those who do not recognize the same. Recognition of these variations helps the teacher maximize learning. Different students with different abilities and personality types learn more with varying techniques. Students low in authoritarianism, low in tendency to dichotomize, low in the need for structure, and high in the ability to tolerate frustrations have been found to learn more when the Socratic questions and answer method is used while children of different reasoning skills learn more with the discovery and expository methods. The setting in which teaching and learning takes place has different effects on students with different aptitudes, personalities, and motivations. ... I believe that whatever strategy I will use should be based on my own assessments of my pupils. A general rule is to recognize the worth and dignity of the learners at all grade levels. The strengths of the journal article are its reliability, significance, credibility of authors. The aim of the study is clearly stated and conveys what the researcher is setting out to achieve. The aim of the pilot study is to explore the value of microteaching and technology in relation to teaching students science subjects or concepts in relation to their learning needs. To describe, the aim is very purposive and is geared towards further understanding of the needs of students and how the current teaching strategies affect these people. Research literature found on the research is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related. The materials that were used were usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publications. The literature review should reflect the current state of knowledge relevant to the study and identify any gaps or conflicts. It should include key or classic studies on the topic as well as up to date literature. There should be a balance of primary and secondary sources. The surveyed materials were as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid social, economic, scientific, and technological changes. Findings several years ago may be of little value today because of the fast changing life style of the people. Materials reviewed were objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or subtly one-sided, either political, or religious,

John Stuart Mills Theories On Liberty

John Stuart Mills Theories On Liberty John Stuart Mill was one of the foremost liberal theorists of the 19th century, binding modern and classical liberalism in his ideas. His defence of liberty however, has been greatly contested by traditionalist views but also highly defended by revisionist views as will be examined in his paper On Liberty (1859). Mills belief in individualism through utilitarian ethics appears contradictory and highly debated. His harms principle and his assumptions on human nature also submit to controversial views. On one hand, traditionalists condemn Mill as a highly inconsistent thinker and his work On Liberty very critical in itself, but on the other hand, revisionists see Mill as a consistent thinker who naturally refines and develops pre-existing liberal ideas. J.S. Mills father, James Mill, was a strong utilitarian theorist  [1]  . His beliefs along with the utilitarianism works of British philosopher Jeremy Bentham had a huge influence on J.S. Mill growing up  [2]  . In Mills essay On Liberty, we can examine how his defence of individualism with utilitarian contentions create critical views. Mill believes in the ethic of utilitarianism in that the state and individuals ought to be judged by their ability and action to promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people  [3]  , however as traditionalists see it, attaining the utmost social good involves forfeiting certain individuals and sacrificing their happiness  [4]  , because happiness of a majority is greater than the happiness of a few individuals. Thus, the rudiment of utilitarianism is in dispute with Mills beliefs in individuality and self-development. In On Liberty, Mill defends freedom of the individual against tyranny of the majority  [5]  where dominant groups, more so the dominance of public opinion, inhibits lesser individuals  [6]  . Mills objection to the majority of society excluding the minority contradicts his utilitarian ethic. 19th Century English critic James Fitzjames Stephen condemns Mills endeavour to defend individual liberty from a utilitarian viewpoint by arguing that, if the fundamental value for utilitarianism is to effectively enhance happiness of a society to the greatest extent, then a consistent utilitarian policy of social betterment will not be especially tender toward individual liberty  [7]  , the interest of the majority outweigh the rights of the individual minority. Stephen views that utilitarian principles pursues social welfare through restricting opinions of some members of society  [8]  and that individualism cannot be viewed with a utilitarian ethic J.S. Mill attempts to do. On the other hand, revisionists argue that such traditionalist views are misinterpreted and that Mills contradictions with utilitarianism is a natural development of his utilitarian predecessors achievements  [9]  and his work not entirely incoherent. In Rem B. Edwards view, Mill is a minimizing utilitarian and that the principle of utility does not impose on individuals the moral obligation to maximize utility  [10]  , but focuses on happiness alone as the ultimate standard of value governing all human areas of practice.  [11]  In On Liberty, Mill regards utility as the ultimate appeal on all ethical questions; but it must be utility in the largest sense, grounded on the permanent interests of a man as a progressive being.  [12]  That is to say, Mills believes that utilitarianism is principle of the higher pleasures, and that freedom of choice, reflective thought and active imagination is a vital ingredient to human happiness.  [13]  For Mill, diversity of opinio n leads to positive social good, therefore overlooking the minority and silencing their opinions deprives the human race, posterity as well as the existing generation.  [14]  For revisionists, Mill as a utilitarian is not essentially inconsistent if he knowingly sacrifices some utility for the sake of a fair distribution of the utility that remains.  [15]   J.S. Mills notorious principle of liberty, the harms principle has also been disputed by traditionalist and revisionist views. In chapter four of On Liberty, Mill argues that peoples actions ought not to be as free as opinions and should be limited if they are a nuisance to other people  [16]  . He states that the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.  [17]  Traditionalist criticizes Mills harm principle because Mill leaves room to suggest that it would be acceptable to limit liberty anytime if it could harm society in anyway. By making harm to others a legitimate reason for state interference, the legitimate powers of the state could extend and outweigh the need to value individuality.  [18]   Another traditionalist indictment against Mills principle of liberty is towards his account that actions should only be restricted if those actions are other-regarding and effect other people, and not if those actions are self-regarding, which affect only the individual themselves and therefore should be exercised with absolute freedom  [19]  . The traditionalist criticize that we cannot clearly distinguish between the two actions Mill propose, as it is inevitable that peoples actions affect others because people are not entirely secluded, therefore in theory any individual act can cause harm to others. As Fitzjames Stephen puts it, I think that the attempt to distinguish between self-regarding acts and acts which regard others, is like an attempt to distinguish between acts which happen in time and acts which happen in space. Every act happens at some time and in some place, and in like manner every act that we do either does or may affect both ourselves and others. I think, the refore, that the distinction (which, by the way, is not at all a common one) is altogether fallacious and unfounded.  [20]   In response to traditionalist criticism, revisionists attempt to clarify self-regarding acts and other-regarding acts. In J.C. Reeses essay, A Re-reading of Mill on Liberty, he distinguishes other-regarding actions to affect other peoples interests in their moral rights, that of liberty and security.  [21]  Therefore, the harm to others implied in On Liberty refers to the harm of an individuals moral interests, resulting in injustice towards the individual.  [22]  As such, revisionist argue that self-regarding actions can be clearly distinguished from other-regarding actions and support Mills harm principle in that actions can be restricted if they are injurious to the moral rights of security and liberty of other people. The significant notion about human nature Mill makes in On Liberty, is how people can best understand and learn about their own opinions and activities from accepting challenging and opposing opinions and arguing against them. One can only faithfully understand their opinion by defending it.  [23]  This belief, based on the social utility of the individual is significantly disputed by traditionalists who argue people may not be able to best understand their opinions and values from dissent. For example, people who have different vocabulary for discussing moral and political issues may simply argue past each other, rather than challenge opposing opinions and therefore a diversity of opinions may not be socially beneficiary as it cannot increase utility, or happiness, which Mill defends as the essence of liberty.  [24]  Mills claim about the need for dissent in order to truly understand ones own opinions is hereby less convincing. It is easy to see how J.S. Mills defence of liberty is highly contentious in views. As explained in this essay, Mills prominent works such as On Liberty, gather traditionalist criticism as well as revisionist support. While traditionalists criticize Mills defence of liberty from a utilitarian ethic, revisionists encourage us to respect Mills work as a distinct process of developing liberalism. Mill refuses to accept fully the utilitarian principles inherited from his father and Bentham, nor reject them for his belief in individual sovereignty  [25]  , but rather attempts to settle the two antagonistic viewpoints to defend liberty.

Animal Farm - The End Justifed the Means :: Animal Farm Essays

END – Achieve freedom from humans and be able to look after themselves The means to get this was by Napoleon and Snowball taking charge and organizing the events in the other animals’ lives JUSTIFY – To whom was justification needed? - Other Animals - Pigs The animals believed that whatever the means, no matter how hard their lives would become, all would turn out for the best. Therefore, Squealer and Napoleon were able to justify this means to an end for them. Napoleon and Squealer were happy and felt that the means was justified because they were advantaged over the others. HOWEVER WAS IT JUSTIFIED? Most people would say ‘no, the end does not justify the means because the pigs were cruel’. However the means can be justified because the animals knew what the means would be, and the end that they had accepted the means for did not include cruel pigs. They felt that as long as the end was good for everyone, the means was justified. What the people mean when they say that ‘the end does not justify the means because the pigs are cruel’ is that they don’t like how the end that all the animals were looking forward to did not eventuate. This didn’t happen because there were in actual fact two ends, not one. Both the pigs and the other animals felt that the means had been justified, but unbeknown to the other animals, the pigs had a different goal. The means of giving Napoleon absolute power to let all animals have freedom and the ability to look after themselves was justified, however, unfortunately, due to the power which corrupted him, Napoleon never let this end get achieved. Napoleon changed the purpose for which this means was to be used. It is the pigs’ end of benefiting themselves only and dominating the other animals that does not justify the means. It is this end that people refer to when they do not agree with this statement, because this end is not a good end. Of course, the pigs thought that their end was good, but it wasn’t because they only wanted to advantage a minority and didn’t care about the other animals. It wasn’t enough for them that they succeeded in living comfortably, everyone else had to fail and struggle to live. The means

Legislation and Guidelines for Schools Essay

This agreement was opened for signature on March 30th 2007 at the United Nations head quarters, in New York. There are 82 signatures to the convention, the UK being one of the first to sign it. The agreement sets out what countries that have signed have to make sure disabled people have the same rights and opportunities has non-disabled people. Although they are covered by normal human rights the UN convention on the rights of disabled people clearly states what these rights are. These cover disabled peoples rights in all areas of life, such as * The right to be educated. * The right to participate in activities. * The right to be employed and not to be discriminated against. * The right to equal justice. * The rights to health. Everybody in society has to respect disabled people as ell as respect their dignity and to ensure they have all their rights that are known to them but of course age and level of understanding also have to be considered. To have an equal chance has everybody else in society as well has given all the opportunities that are open to them and to be able to grow and develop without fear of discrimination. They have the right to be respected and their opinions listen too as well as been valued person The right to have free supported education even in mainstream schools in which schools have to make reasonable changes to accommodate a disabled child. An education provider has a duty to make reasonable changes to their setting to accommodate a disabled person to ensure they have the same opportunities has a non-disabled person, such as * Providing ramps to enter and leave. * Access to outdoor areas. * Provide extra support such as, teachers and or equipment. * Wider walk ways for ease of access for people in wheelchairs and or crutches. * Move the room around for ease of access if need be. * Quite time area for relaxing or time for their selves. Providers are not expected to pay costs beyond what their business can take but are expected to make reasonable changes to the surrounding areas to meet the needs of a disabled child. In July 2009 the government approved UN convention and agreed to be bound by conventions stated written agreed terms. This means when developing a new policy or a programme to help aid disabled people the UN convention has to be taken into account and looked upon when doing so. As well as involving disabled people in the programme that will involve them. In 2011 the government agreed to review the UN convention to see how it was being applied and used through out schools and work today. The UK have achieved much, in 2010 the equality Act 2010 was adopted. Which protects disabled people from discrimination in the work place, schools and in society altogether. It is unlawfully for a provider this does include private and independent providers to discriminate between disable people and non-disabled people, such as * Race. * Gender. * Sexual Orientation. * Religion. * Disability. The aims of these acts are to eliminate any kind of discrimination against disabled people and to improve their rights and as well as their well-being. It does also help to aid society’s knowledge and understanding of disabilities. Typically in historic past people with disabilities have been stereotyped in many, many ways. Some of those stereotypical labels are still used in today’s society most of this is down to, * Missing or incomplete information. * Mistaken ideas. * Not so much accessible knowledge. * Television. * Internet. Some of these stereotyping comes from television, such as * Hunch back on Notre Dame, he was outcast from society and lived hidden away he was also called ugly. * The film, Rain man he was misunderstood and was sent away to live and was also called an idiot. * Charles Dickens, The Christmas Carol, tiny Tim was called a cripple. * Forest Grump, was ignored and laughed at, was out cast from mainstream school because he had below average IQ and was called the local idiot. In today’s society although labels and stereotyping does still happen it is not so much now. This is thanks to more information, prompting, legislation and guidelines that’s are now in place in schools, work place’s and every day today life giving people with disabilities more opportunities more self worth And to be accepted into today’s society. Showing the right attitude towards disabled people, non-disabled people and each other along with the right and respectful terminology used are also very important has it makes people feel listened too, respected and helps build confidence, friendships and more settled environment to work in. Legislation and the SEN code of practice are in place for disabled babies, children and young adults. They act has guidelines and are there to protect people with disabilities but also protect the people that work with them and around them. The SEN code of practice (2001) came into practice on January 1st 2002 all local Authorities, schools, providers including health and social services are obliged to refer to this. It was issued by the department of education it helps give guidance to providers in early settings, schools and local authorities and many, many more. It also sets out guidelines of what procedures that can be followed and carried out within reason and to meet the needs of the child involved. It believes in partnership with parents and other outside agency’s to ensure that the needs are being meet for the child and that all opportunities that can be and will be excused. It is good practice to identify early has possible for early intervention is the best possible affect and gives the child more of a chance. The age and level of the child also has to be taken into consideration.

Cooling Drinks

1) What is the specific latent heat of fusion of water?Specific latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a substance when changing states. This could be boiling or melting. Latent heat of fusion is the amount of energy needed to melt a substance, while latent heat of vaporisation is the amount of energy needed to boil a substance. The specific latent heat of fusion of water is 334 j/g In the graph, you can see that as the temperature increases more energy is needed to heat the water. When the temperature hits the latent heat of fusion, the temperature stops rising as the energy is being used to change the state of water. This also happens when the latent heat of vaporisation2) What is the specific heat capacity of water?The specific heat capacity is the amount of heat that is needed to raise the temperature of a substance. The specific heat capacity water is 4181 j/kg. This is higher than most metals. Here are some other substances with their specific heat capacity; SubstanceC (J/g oC) Air 1.01 Aluminium 0.902 Copper 0.385 Gold 0.129 Iron 0.450 Mercury 0.140 Sodium Chloride 0.864 Ice 2.03 Water 4.183) Why energy is needed to melt ice and how this is explained by the structures of ice and water The molecules of H20 behave differently in water than in ice. In water they are floating around freely and in ice they are â€Å"stationary†, they only vibrate slowly. This is because they don’t have enough energy to break their intermolecular bonds. So in order to melt ice you need to add energy to give the molecules kinetic energy to move around, becoming less stationary. If enough energy is given to the molecules they break the intermolecular bonds and the ice melts to ice. 4) Why is ice more effective for cooling a drink than cold water The cooling of a drink with a cube of ice is more effective than using cold water because ice can absorbs a lot more heat. This is because it has a higher specific latent heat of fusion.Hypothes isThe greater the amount of ice that melts the bigger the temperature drop of the water This is because when more ice melts more energy is taken from the waterApparatus5 identical beakers which are made of the same materials Thermometers with a suitable range; -10oC to 100oC Measuring with volume above 200cm3 Top-pan balance reading with up to 35g Ice (crushed), not straight form the freezer Suitable insulating material Means of removing water e.g. paper towels Stopwatch to measure time in minutes and secondsMethod1) Pour 200cm3 of water into 4 same sized beakers of the same materials. This is so the materials does not affect the in temperature 2) I’m going to measure the temperature of the water. I’m going to make sure the temperature is the same to make it a fair test. I’m going to leave the water to become room temperature for about 5 minutes 3) I’m going to add 15g of ice to Beaker 1, 25g to Beaker 2, 25g to Beaker 3 and the fourth Beaker will have no ice.The fourth beaker will set the benchmarks. The amount of ice is the independent variable. I will measure the ices mass by using the top-pan balance. I used these certain amount of mass so I have a big range of data and will make a better comparison. 4) I will then measure the temperature of the beakers every minute for three minutes. 5) Then I will put all my results into a table and then into a line graph so I can make easy comparisons Hazards, the risks and how to reduce the risksResults Table1. Describe any patterns or trends in your results. Comment on any unexpected results. After analysing my result I have found some trends in the data. I also saw some anomalies that came up in the experiment. The most obvious trend is in the line graph and the temperature drop. The more mass of ice I put into the beaker to cool the drink, the faster the temperature dropped. For example, in beaker one 2. Compare results of your own investigation (Part 2) with the data from other groups wi thin your class and any data collected in Part 1. Comment on any similarities and differences.Suggest  and explain possible reasons for any differences. 3. Evaluate your results, the method you used and how well you managed the risks. 4. Do your results from Part 2 support the hypothesis suggested by Charlie’s friend? Explain your answer. 5. It is possible to use the equations below to predict the temperature drop of the water when a chosen amount of ice is added to it. Will the actual temperature drop, measured in your experiment, be equal to the predicted value? Use relevant scientific explanations in your answer. Use the results of your experiment, appropriate calculations and your research (Part 1) to provide evidence to support your answer. 1 cm3 of water has a mass of 1 gEnergy = mass Ãâ€" specific heat capacity Ãâ€" temperature change Energy = mass Ãâ€" specific latent heat

Organisational Behaviour Report Essay Example

Organisational Behaviour Report Essay Example Organisational Behaviour Report Essay Organisational Behaviour Report Essay Conflict is non confined at the single degree entirely but is attesting itself more and more in organisations. Employees have become more blatant in their demands for a better trade. Assorted sections in an organisation face a state of affairs full of struggles due to a figure of grounds like end diverseness. scarceness of resources or undertaking mutuality etc. Conflict Dysfunctional Conflict can take an interpersonal signifier. Conflict between persons takes topographic point owing to several factors. but most common are personal disfavors or personality differences. When there are merely differences of sentiment between persons about task-related affairs. it can be construed as proficient struggle instead than interpersonal struggle. Technical and interpersonal struggles may act upon each other due to role-related force per unit areas. One may set the incrimination for low gross revenues volume on the production director non run intoing his production agenda and may get down disliking the production director as an unqualified individual. It is frequently really hard to set up whether a struggle between two parties is due to manifest rational factors. or it emanates from concealed personal factors. Conflict Functional These types of intragroup struggles arise often due to an individual’s inability to conform to the group norms. Most groups have an thought of a fair day’s work and may supercharge an person if he exceeds or falls short of the group’s productiveness norms. If the single resents any such force per unit area or penalty. he could come into struggle with other group members. Normally. it is really hard for an person to stay a group-member and at the same clip. well deviate from the group norm. So. in most instances. either he conforms to the group norm or is rejected by the group. Of class. before taking any such utmost measure. he or the other group members try to act upon each other through several mechanisms taking to different episodes of struggle. Analysis A batch of struggle is generated within organisations because assorted groups within the organisation clasp conflicting’ values and perceive state of affairss in a narrow. individualistic mode. An illustration that comes readily to mind is that of the managment-labour struggle. Labor feels that direction is working it because in malice of doing a net income. direction does nil for the economic public assistance of labour. On the other manus. direction feels that the net incomes should travel to hard currency militias so as to do the company an attractive proposition for investors. Another illustration is the struggle between technology and fabrication. Engineering lays emphasis on technological edification and preciseness and is accused by fabricating of planing merchandises that will last for many old ages but that the clients can non afford. It is maintained that since an organisation is composed of single and they had different perceptual experiences of ends and dithering values. struggle is bound to originate in the organisation. Directors of assorted sections have separate precedences and conflicting thoughts about resource allotment. Hence struggle is the ineluctable result. Subordinates may collide with the director over whether the work can be accomplished in the given period of clip or non. They might even reason with subsidiaries at their ain degree over the best possible manner to make a given occupation. Thus struggle is an ineluctable result but at the same clip it is assumed that struggle need non ever be damaging. Under some fortunes it could concentrate on jobs and incite a hunt for better and more advanced solutions to jobs. Though struggle can take to more creativeness in job resolution and be good to organisation under certain conditions. yet it is perceived that struggle as harmful- something to be resolved once it originate. The positions about human nature are that people are basically good ; trust. cooperation and goodness are given in human nature. Consequently. the major ancestor conditions which induce aggressiveness and struggle in people are the defective policies and construction ensuing in deformation and dislocation in communicating. Therefore the manager’s function in deciding struggle is to reconstruct apprehension. trust and openness between parties. It is non easy to construct a strong corporate civilization in any organisation. A strong civilization is based on strong moralss. This is really of import for the success of the organisation in the long-run. It is really easy to follow short-cut methods to make the top but the ruin besides comes at the same rate. Ethical motives guarantee that the organisation does non follow short-cut methods to accomplish success ; alternatively it stresses on the construct of sustained success. Every organisation has its ain codification of moralss and criterions in a written signifier. The codification of moralss usually contains the undermentioned points: Honesty Fairness in patterns of the company- Disclosing the inside information ; Acquiring and utilizing outside information- Disclosure of outside activities by the employer to the employee ; Each organisation has its ain set of codification of moralss. Making dialogues has been identified as one of the primary duties of any director. Negotiations may affect apportioning resources. puting capital or presenting new merchandises. If resources like work forces. money. machines. stuffs. clip and infinite were abundant. clearly any planning would be unneeded. But. typically. resources are scarce and so there is a demand for be aftering. Negotiation devising is at the nucleus of all planned activities. We can ill afford to blow scarce resources by doing excessively many incorrect dialogues or by staying indecisive for excessively long a clip. Negotiation doing under hazard: A dialogue is made under conditions of hazard when a individual action may ensue in more than one possible result. but the comparative chance of each result is known. Negotiations under conditions of hazard are possibly the most common. In such state of affairss. options are recognized. but their resulting effects are probabilistic and dubious. While the options are clear. the effect is probabilistic and dubious. Therefore. a status of hazard may be said to be. In pattern. directors assess the likeliness of assorted results happening based on past experience. research. and other information. A quality control inspector. for illustration. might find the chance of figure of rejects’ per production tally. Similarly. a safety applied scientist might find the chance of figure of accidents happening. or a forces director might find the chance of a certain turnover or absenteeism rate. Negotiation doing under uncertainness: A dialogue is made under conditions of uncertainness when a individual action may ensue in more than one possible result but the comparative chance of each result is unknown. Negotiations under conditions of uncertainness are unimpeachably the most hard. In such state of affairss a director has no cognition whatsoever on which to gauge the likely happening of assorted options. Negotiations under uncertainness by and large occur in instances where no historical informations are available from which to deduce chances or in cases which are so fresh and complex that it is impossible to do comparative judgements. Negotiations under complete uncertainness are as hard to mention as illustration of determinations under absolute certainty. Given even limited experience and the ability to generalise from past state of affairss. most directors should be able to do at least some estimation of the chance of happening of assorted result. However. there are doubtless times when directors feel they are covering with complete uncertainness. The figure of factors to be considered and the big figure of unmanageable variables vital to the success of such a venture can be mind-boggling On a personal degree. the choice of a occupation from among options is a calling determination that incorporates a great trade of uncertainness. The figure of factors to be weighed and evaluated. frequently without comparable criterions. can be overpowering.

social class and dirty dancing essays

social class and dirty dancing essays Gender And Sexuality Play A Key Part Within The Film Dirty Dancing. Discuss. The film is set in the year of 1963, John F Kennedy was still president and the Vietnam War was not considered a threat, the Beatles had yet not reached America and the Freedom riders were on. In reality the well known and loved, cult girly film, and classic romance was made in 1987. There have been many attempts throughout the film to represent the time in which it was set and yet there are clear indications that the film is of a more modern make. Essentially the film could be classed as both a dancing film and a romance in its genre. It aims to demythologise the myth of the American dream by portraying fundamental rifts within societies thinking. The idea of a relationship occurring between the workers (working class) and upper classes is not a new subject, yet it is obvious that many issues raised within the film, show a deep argument about moral ideas posed by sex. The film opens with a stirring sound track with the montage of suggestive images in black and white gyrating across the screen. The viewer from the opening scenes maybe has an idea why the film is called dirty dancing. Right from the beginning it is clear that the majority of dancers are young, Caucasian, heterosexual couples. Within the view there is one black couple dancing with each other. Everybody appears to be equal in role when dancing. There is no swapping of partners and throughout the rest of the film each couple is for the majority, firmly set with that partner. The action begins with a Cadillac driving along a deserted road and a voice over explaining the year and name of the main character. Immediately we are alerted that the young girl is called Baby. The audience is also immediately aware of the desire of the character to have a man exactly like her father. The voice-over explains that and I thought I would never find a man as... [good] as ...

Burned by Ellen Hopkins Essay Example for Free

Burned by Ellen Hopkins Essay Ellen Hopkins wrote this novel about a girl who grew up in a Mormon household, and is beginning to think that this is not a lifestyle she wants for herself. With an abusive father, lazy and passive mother, and constant conflicts with the Mormon teachings and beliefs, she refuses to give in to that way of life. She refuses to ever become property to a husband who she is taught to â€Å"obey† or a baby producing machine. With her new resilience and want for a normal life, it angers her father. He sends her to live with his estranged sister for the summer, but what he doesn’t realize is that he’s giving her freedom and a chance to live. She learns to love and that life as she knew it was never a life meant for her. Hopkins’ book shows the life of a Mormon girl; Pattyn Scarlet Von Stratten. Pattyn is tired of the Mormon lifestyle and rebels against her family and the rules of her home and church. Her father spends most of the time drunk and angry and her mother has a whole household to take care of. After Pattyn gets in a fight and breaks a window, her family has had enough of her rebelling so they send her to live with her Aunt, out in the middle of nowhere, for the summer, so she can no longer get in trouble. It turns out that she has fun on her stay with her aunt, she learns how to drive and ride a horse, and meets the love of her life. She fell in love with Ethan, the son of her aunt’s friend. He is not Mormon and her father would kill the both of them if they were together. After returning home things start to go bad again. She mouths off to her father and gets beaten. She takes the rap for something her sister does, and gets beaten to save her sister. She also learns that she will have Ethan’s baby. Like all of Hopkins novels, Burned also has a tragic ending. Ethan and Pattyn get in a car wreck and she wakes up in the hospital to learn that she lost Ethan and her baby. In the end she says that God could not be love because love was a corpse, because she lost the love of her life, and the only thing remnant of him. The book leaves you with the vision of Pattyn sitting above a busy highway, about to take you own life. Burned by Ellen Hopkins. (2018, Oct 19).

Balance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Balance - Essay Example If a keystone species is removed the balance of that ecosystem may breakdown. For example when they removed wolves from North American woodlands, it caused a spike in prey animal populations and damaged the flow of this system. Question 2 Discuss what a "fish ladder" is and whether or not they contribute to the reproduction of salmon. Fish ladders are designed to be placed in places on the migratory path of fish, like salmon, that is gradient in width, with places for fish to rest in the process of going further and further upstream. The fish ladders are known well to be helpful for adult salmon going upstream. In some ways it is mans way of giving back. So much of manmade structures and endeavors have profound impacts and have interfered in many salmon migratory locales. As helpful as the ladders are in some cases, unfortunately, the ladders are sometimes difficult for the fish to find in the larger bodies of water (USGS, 2013). Question 3 What are the pros and cons of the China's T hree Gorges Dam? China’s Three Gorges Dam is considered the largest construction undertaking since the Great Wall of China. The pros of this immense project include the allowance of ships into the new water way from areas that were before inaccessible, the turbines will provide massive amounts of alternative energy, something China is in need of, and will prevent in the reduction of floods, common in the area for hundreds of years. The cons involving the Three Gorges Dam, include, complaints of corruption in its inceptions and construction via illegal and unethical government activities, there are, also, complaints of poor and potentially, dangerous construction. They claim that corners have been cut to save money in the construction. Many question if the dam is safe. There are also concerns from environmentalists that the dam will ultimately leak toxins into the waters and be no better than previous energy source (Kennedy, 2001). Question 4 What are the forces responsible of creating Hurricanes in the Atlantic ocean. Are they good or bad, why? Hurricanes formed in the Atlantic Ocean are perfectly natural occurrences. However, in recent years experts have noticed that the frequency and immensity of hurricanes is increasing. Warm water and moist, warm air are the ingredients of any hurricanes. The warm moist air from the surface of the ocean travels up and mixes with cooler air, which causes the warm water to turn to vapor creating rain clouds. It is the continuation of this cycle that creates they swirling mass that a hurricane becomes. It is possible that global warming, caused by human beings, may be responsible for the modern frequency of hurricanes (West, 2013). If this is true then this cannot be good. Question 5 What forces are responsible of creating sinkholes. Ultimately it is water that is responsible for sinkholes. Water can weather the minerals in rock, more water may wash away what has broken away, weight and stress from above, and frozen te mperatures, also, contribute, along with drilling, vibration from above, and, of course, everyday wear and tear (Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, 2013)This is what cause a sinkhole. Question 6 What are the forces responsible of destroying the coral reefs and what can we do to prevent it. Currently

Reliability and Validity Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reliability and Validity Paper - Essay Example † and then proceeds with â€Å"How it will be measured?† (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009) A measurement is defined as ‘good’ if it fulfills the criteria of validity and reliability. Reliability: Reliability measures the extent to which the test yields consistent results each time it is conducted and across various situations and includes the following (Neukrug, 2008). Test-retest: This involves conducting the same scale or test to similar respondents at two different points in time (Neukrug, 2008). For example, a researcher interested in measuring the number of times an average adult worker falls sick within a year discovers that 68% of the population falls sick at least thrice. If this test is conducted again, under similar conditions, and it is discovered again that 68% of the population falls sick at least thrice a year, it indicates that the test is reliable. Split-half: Under this the researcher checks one half of the results of a test against the othe r half to check for internal consistency (Neukrug, 2008). For example, a researcher who has measured good quality of human services at a hospital in terms of four items ambience, proper equipment, quick procedure and trained staff can split the results by grouping the results of ambience and proper equipment together and quick procedure and trained staff together respectively and then check the Chronbach’s alpha for these two groups. ... If the results obtained through the two tests show high correlation, then the tests are considered to be reliable. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure; that is, the extent to which the test meets its objectives (Neukrug, 2008). The following are the types of validity: Face or content validity: This results from the consensus amongst experts that a scale logically appears to be reliable (Neukrug, 2008). For instance, questions such as â€Å"how many children do you have?† asked by a researcher regarding the effectiveness of family planning programs are generally assumed to stand up to face validity. Criterion Validity: If the measure correlates with another measure of the same construct then it is assumed to have criterion validity (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009). If the new measure is tested at the same time as the old measure and is shown to be valid it is known as concurrent validity and if the new measure is te sted at a later time and is shown to be valid then it is predictive validity (Desarbo, William, & Babin, 2009). For example, in tests reveal that the effectiveness of the prototype provide correct estimate of the effectiveness of the final medicine 80% of the time, then the test has predictive validity. If, however, the same correlation is established between the final medicine (after it’s manufactured) and its prototype at the same time, then it will have concurrent validity. Construct Validity: This refers to the extent to which the measure confirms a network of hypothesis based on a theory to which the concepts are related (Monette, Sullivan, & DeJong, 2010). Convergent

Nursing - Aplication of Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Nursing - Aplication of Theory - Essay Example However, the delivery of their services is in a detached manner, in which they have minimal physical and social contact with the patient. The nurse however is deeply involved at all stages with the patient, and has a stellar role to play throughout the recovery process, even after discharge. The nobility of the profession, already exemplified by Florence Nightingale, has been firmly established. The tremendous developments in science, education, medical techniques and information technology during the last and the present century have brought forth new concepts, Ideologies and roles for nursing as well as other professionals. An important aspect during this period has been the identification, conceptualization and practical application of numerous nursing theories’ which have established themselves as hallmarks for the nursing profession. A nursing theory has been defined as the body of knowledge that is used to support nursing practice with most of the presently recognized tw enty theories’ generated in the last 20 years, with new concepts being identified and added continuously(Web). Nursing theories have been pictorially visualized as a tree whose trunk is represented by Florence Nightingale’s whose significant contribution to the reduction of mortality in soldiers’ during the war in Turkey and efforts to bring about an association of nursing with spirituality, devotion and knowledge revolutionized the way nurses were looked at in society as well as the manner in which they operated (Tourville, 2003). Based on the strong foundations laid down by Nightingale, numerous nursing professionals have contributed to the development of this virtual tree whose roots have been described as the four meta-paradigms defined as person, environment, health and nursing (Tourville, 2003). Each subsequent contribution to the knowledge on nursing theories’ has been attributed to individual nursing practitioners’ who made a significant im pact on the subsequent school of thought in the profession. Jean Watson, who came up with the idea of her ‘carative theory’ in the latter part of the twentieth century has held great appeal in the subsequent years. Watson was influenced by philosophy and thoughts of eminent psychologists and personalities such as Carl Rogers, Yalom, Chardin, Sartre and Kirkland (Tourville, 2003). In addition she had vast experience in the nursing profession in multinational and multicultural environments. Watson relegated the scientific and medical aspects of healing to an altogether different aspect which she labeled as ‘Trim’ and stressed upon ‘caring’ for the patient as the most important aspect. She appealed for the nurses’ to treat themselves with gentleness and dignity while establishing a deep, caring relationship with the patient. She felt that the caring attitude of nurses’ as been buried under the technical aspects of healthcare. Unless and interpersonal relationship is established between the patient and the nurse, it is difficult to justify one’ duty as a nurse. The crux of her ‘carative factors focuses on unselfish concern for every human being, instillation of faith and hope in the sufferer, cultivation of sensitivity towards self as well as others, developing a helping attitude to strengthen trust, encouraging the patient to express freely, decision making through a problem solving

Corporate finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words - 2

Corporate finance - Essay Example e views that capital structure (debt or equity financing) and dividend policy do not matter in company valuation come from the same theory that made daring assumptions about corporate investment decisions and the efficiency of capital markets. In their classic papers on these issues, Miller and Modigliani (1958 and 1961) used as a starting point that the company has settled on its investment programme and determined how much of the investments would be financed from debt, with the remaining funds required being funded from retained earnings, and any surplus funds would be paid out as dividends. If the company decides to increase dividends without changing the investment and borrowing policy, the funds that would be needed to pay the dividends should come from somewhere. If debt is fixed, the only way it can fund extra dividends is to sell more shares. The new stockholders would invest only if you offer them shares worth as much as they cost, but how can the firm do this when its assets, earnings, investment opportunities, and therefore, market value are all unchanged? The answer is that there must be a transfer of value from the old to the new stockholders, with the new ones getting the new shares, each one worth less than before the dividend change was announced, and the old ones suffering a capital loss on their shares. The capital loss of the old shareholders would just offset the extra cash dividend they receive. Would it matter to the old stockholders to receive extra dividends plus an offsetting capital loss? It would if that were the only way they can get cash. But as long as there are efficient capital markets, they can raise the cash by selling shares. Thus, the old shareholders can â€Å"cash in† either by persuading management to pay a higher dividend or by selling some of their shares. In either case, there will be a transfer of value from old to new shareholders, and the only difference is that in the former case (higher dividends) this

Constructivism and Post-Structuralism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Constructivism and Post-Structuralism - Essay Example Constructivism's 'importance and its added value for the study of International Relations lie mainly in its emphasis on the ontological reality of intersubjective knowledge and on the epistemological and methodological implications of this reality'. He devotes an entire section to elucidating intersubjectivity as collectively shared knowledge which both empowers and constrains actors and also defines social reality. The upshot of Adler's portrayal of constructivism is, as the title of his article suggests, that it has a justifiable claim to the 'middle ground', which he construes as situated between rationalism and poststructuralism. Adler identifies 'seizing the middle ground' as the key to the constructivist project. This assessment is echoed by other scholars. Hopf sees constructivism as situated in the middle ground between rational choice theory and postmodernism, whilst Ted Hopf locates it between the mainstream and critical theory. Thus in defining constructivism scholars make reference to recognising the material world as existing independently of, but interacting with, the social world, the central role of intersubjectivity and the significance of occupying a middle-ground position. Wendt's positioning in the middle ground, related to a particular notion of identity; Kratochwil's reliance on an unproblematic intersubjectivity, based on normative context; and Onuf's claim to an independently existing material world behind our constructions. The acknowledgement of materiality appear to be crucial.... (Katzenstein, 1998, 645-85) This takes us on to a second key element of constructivism, namely intersubjectivity. (Guzzini, 2000, 147-82). According to Adler, constructivism's 'importance and its added value for the study of International Relations lie mainly in its emphasis on the ontological reality of intersubjective knowledge and on the epistemological and methodological implications of this reality'. (Adler, 1997, 319-63) He devotes an entire section to elucidating intersubjectivity as collectively shared knowledge which both empowers and constrains actors and also defines social reality. (Adler, 1997, 319-63) The upshot of Adler's portrayal of constructivism is, as the title of his article suggests, that it has a justifiable claim to the 'middle ground', which he construes as situated between rationalism and poststructuralism. (Adler, 1997, 319-63)Adler identifies 'seizing the middle ground' as the key to the constructivist project. This assessment is echoed by other scholars. Hopf sees constructivism as situated in the middle ground between rational choice theory and postmodernism, whilst Ted Hopf locates it betw een the mainstream and critical theory. (Hopf, 1998, 171-200) Thus in defining constructivism scholars make reference to recognising the material world as existing independently of, but interacting with, the social world, the central role of intersubjectivity and the significance of occupying a middle-ground position. Wendt's positioning in the middle ground, related to a particular notion of identity; Kratochwil's reliance on an unproblematic intersubjectivity, based on normative context; and Onuf's claim to an independently existing material world behind our constructions. (Onuf, 1989, 45-50) The acknowledgement

Retailing and Wholesaling - Marketing assignment Essay

Retailing and Wholesaling - Marketing assignment - Essay Example A wholesaler is a crucial part of the distribution channel for many products particularly consumer goods and business supplies. Wholesaling intermediaries may be classified on the basis of ownership; some are owned by manufacturers, some are owned by retailers, and others are independently owned. In some instances, some wholesalers sell directly to the consumers especially when the consumer wants to buy a certain product or products in bulk. Wholesalers frequently resale both new and used goods to retailers and other wholesalers and may at times act as a broker in buying or selling products to such people. In most cases, wholesalers physically assemble products, break the bulk products acquired from manufacturers, sort and grade them, and finally repackage them in smaller quantities to be redistributed to retailers. They are involved in the transportation of goods from the place of manufacture to their warehouses from where they can be redistributed to retailers. Since the wholesaler is closer to the manufacturer, they are often responsible for giving out more information to their customers (retailers) about the products which they are selling them. Furthermore, if a product is found to be faulty, then the retailer will take that product back to the wholesaler either for it to be fixed or for it to be replaced. Since most retailers cannot afford to buy directly from the manufacturer in bulk, the wholesaler takes this responsibility and bears the risk of buying in bulk for redistribution in smaller quantities. Cant, M (3) says that a retailer may be seen as a business that focuses its marketing efforts on the final consumers with the intention of selling goods and services to them and this means that any business that sells a product or service to a final consumer, whether it is to a consumer in a shop, by mail, over the phone, door to door, or by means of a vending machine is

Constructivism and Post-Structuralism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Constructivism and Post-Structuralism - Essay Example Constructivism's 'importance and its added value for the study of International Relations lie mainly in its emphasis on the ontological reality of intersubjective knowledge and on the epistemological and methodological implications of this reality'. He devotes an entire section to elucidating intersubjectivity as collectively shared knowledge which both empowers and constrains actors and also defines social reality. The upshot of Adler's portrayal of constructivism is, as the title of his article suggests, that it has a justifiable claim to the 'middle ground', which he construes as situated between rationalism and poststructuralism. Adler identifies 'seizing the middle ground' as the key to the constructivist project. This assessment is echoed by other scholars. Hopf sees constructivism as situated in the middle ground between rational choice theory and postmodernism, whilst Ted Hopf locates it between the mainstream and critical theory. Thus in defining constructivism scholars make reference to recognising the material world as existing independently of, but interacting with, the social world, the central role of intersubjectivity and the significance of occupying a middle-ground position. Wendt's positioning in the middle ground, related to a particular notion of identity; Kratochwil's reliance on an unproblematic intersubjectivity, based on normative context; and Onuf's claim to an independently existing material world behind our constructions. The acknowledgement of materiality appear to be crucial.... (Katzenstein, 1998, 645-85) This takes us on to a second key element of constructivism, namely intersubjectivity. (Guzzini, 2000, 147-82). According to Adler, constructivism's 'importance and its added value for the study of International Relations lie mainly in its emphasis on the ontological reality of intersubjective knowledge and on the epistemological and methodological implications of this reality'. (Adler, 1997, 319-63) He devotes an entire section to elucidating intersubjectivity as collectively shared knowledge which both empowers and constrains actors and also defines social reality. (Adler, 1997, 319-63) The upshot of Adler's portrayal of constructivism is, as the title of his article suggests, that it has a justifiable claim to the 'middle ground', which he construes as situated between rationalism and poststructuralism. (Adler, 1997, 319-63)Adler identifies 'seizing the middle ground' as the key to the constructivist project. This assessment is echoed by other scholars. Hopf sees constructivism as situated in the middle ground between rational choice theory and postmodernism, whilst Ted Hopf locates it betw een the mainstream and critical theory. (Hopf, 1998, 171-200) Thus in defining constructivism scholars make reference to recognising the material world as existing independently of, but interacting with, the social world, the central role of intersubjectivity and the significance of occupying a middle-ground position. Wendt's positioning in the middle ground, related to a particular notion of identity; Kratochwil's reliance on an unproblematic intersubjectivity, based on normative context; and Onuf's claim to an independently existing material world behind our constructions. (Onuf, 1989, 45-50) The acknowledgement

Blue Collar Jobs Essay Example for Free

Blue Collar Jobs Essay In the current economic situation in the U.S, graduating high school and going off to college for a degree has pretty much become the goal for most of the students here in the United States. According to the Institute of Education Sciences, studies have shown that between 1999 and 2009, the number of students in the United States perusing a degree in college full time has risen by almost 45% while part time students increased by 28%. With the vast expanding number of students, the number of job openings for these certain fields are simply not enough to provide every graduate with a job. Because of this problem the unemployment rates are staggeringly high here in the United States which includes the 44% those coming out of college. (Rampell) Take Kyle Bishop for example. Currently 24, he has been waiting tables, delivering beer, and working at a bookstore since 2009 when he graduated from the University of Pittsburgh. (Rampell) Stories like this arise every day and only more appear. It will eventually affect future college students pursuing a degree and those who return to study to obtain a degree. Despite these stories however, many companies have been seeking employees to fill up positions for months to years. Many of these jobs have included machinist, welder, and many more in manufacturing, hence blue collar jobs. Now you may be thinking, how can companies not fill up position for manual labor? But with the pace of the advancement of technology in modern society, machinery has become more complicated and requires a higher skill cap to use compared to before while the number of workers with the skill to operate them has been dwindling. In the North Dakota oil fields, there is a 30% shortage of petroleum engineers and a 10% shortage of machinists that the companies simply cannot find enough workers with the skillsets to fill up these positions. According to news article from the Dallas Morning News the workforce is very skilled but they’re mostly people with experience who are soon to retire. It seems like jobs can’t be found without experience and experience can’t be gained without a job however, many say vocational school may become a solution. Students will be able to gain experience by learning about certain jobs in the field and acquiring the skills required without the need of actually finding a job. More people would become qualified to take over the empty positions and those soon to be empty as people begin to retire and more skilled workers join the workforce which could ease the unemployment rates. Every move made can affect the future of the United States economy and the future workers. Education is certainly very important but obtaining skills to work certain jobs is probably one of the most important factors in getting a job.

Assess one sociological theory of religion

Assess one sociological theory of religion Using examples critically assess one sociological theory of religion In most traditional societies, religion is an important form of social togetherness. It augments a feeling of community and promotes a set of shared values and beliefs in some form of god. Religion also plays a central role in cultural life; people often synthesize religious symbols and rituals into the material and artistic culture of the society: literature, storytelling, painting, music, and dance. It is the focus of the society that is of interest to religious sociologists, in particular theories concerning the way religious behaviour differs between and within societies. Beckford notes that theories revolving around how social interaction benefits or holds back societies, has made sociology a renowned area of study. In order to establish a fundamental starting point in this thesis, the foundations of sociology and the sociology of religion will be described in context. Furthermore, it will discuss, in some detail, the sociological theoretical approach of functionalism by sociologists; a critical analysis will aim to show the differences in their approaches to functionalism and will include supporting and critical statements from preceding and subsequent sociological theorists. Sociologists generally define religion as a codified set of moral beliefs concerning sacred things and rules governing the behaviour of believers who form a spiritual community . Auguste Comte (1798 1857) describes sociology as the study of human societies. A classical view is that, it is a social science that, uses varied methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis, and is often used to develop theory about human social activity. The sociology of religion therefore takes into account the aforementioned and a lso includes the practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society. Jones (2003) describes Comte as the first to proclaim the virtues of an empirically based social science, a type of sociology that would have enormous implications for someone like Comte, who had been born during the aftermath of the French Revolution. Bilton et al (1996) explain this further: Positive social knowledge could offer the means for peaceful reconstruction of social order by the elite of enlightened scientists and intellectualsSocial change need not depend upon revolutionary violence and the manipulation of the mob Comte was able to make use of the new science for the progression of society and the re-establishment of order as well as being able to apply the positive method to social theory . Comte and his fellow Frenchman Durkheim are said to be the forerunners in creating the discipline of sociology. Thompson (1982) describes Comte as giving the subject its name and an ambitious prospectus, whilst Durkheim gave it, academic credibility and influence. Functionalist sociologists focus their attention on the nature of institutional relationships in society. To understand this further, one can use Talcott Parsons functionalist ideas as an example. Parsons, [who supported functionalism in the United States] used the functionalist perspective to group institutions in society into four related functional sub-systems; economic, political, kinship, and cultural. This theory stressed the importance of interdependence among all behaviour patterns and institutions within a social system to its long-term survival. In a similar way Durkheim In trying to explain the value of social and cultural character, illuminated them in terms of their contribution to the operation of an overall system. Furthermore, Malinowski, who promoted functionalism in England, endorsed the idea that cultural practices had psychological and physiological functions, such as the reduction of fear and anxiety, and the satisfaction of desires. Another Englishman Radcliffe- Brown contended that, all instituted practices ultimately contribute to the maintenance, and hence the survival, of the entire social system, determining the character of inter-group relations. It is Parsons sub-system of culture that encompasses religion that we now turn to. A functional definition of religion is fundamentally based on the social structure and drawing together of people, it pays particular attention to how religion guides and influences the lives of people who are actively involved, and through this promotes unity and social cohesiveness. Durkheim believed and argued that, religion was a socially constructed institution, serving the needs of society by socialising members into the same norms, values and beliefs, therefore reinforcing the collective conscience upon which the stability of society rests. He looked in depth at the origins, meaning, and function of religion in society. His belief was that religion was not so much about God, but more about the consolidation of society and the sense of identity that this creates within a particular society. He fully believed that individuals who accepted their role within their own society develop a form of social conscience as part of that role, which Durkheim labels as the Conscience collecti ve, which in simpler terms could be labelled as, a common understanding. Published in 1921 and penned by Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, is renowned as the best-known study on the sociology of religion. Using secondary data, Durkheim studied native totemism in primitive Australian tribes, in effect the totem is a symbol that is an integral part of the group, and during ceremonies will be the magnet that draws everyone together to form a collective whole. Therefore, totemism in this instance is explained not in terms of what it is, [what the content of its doctrines and beliefs are] but what it does, that is, the function it performs for the social system. Durkheim claims that, the totem, the sacred object is a representation, by which society symbolises itself, which according to Fulcher and Scott, he believed to be the real basis of social solidarity. From his observations Durkheim developed his theory of the sacred and profane, believing that all things in society can be separated into these distinct categories, as a fundamental d ichotomy the sacred and profane are seen as two separate domains or worlds. For Durkheim the sacred meant the unity of the group embodied in symbols, as in his example of totems, the profane was more about the mundane or the individual, and less concerned with the group. However the British anthropologist Evans-Pritchard (1937) observed that sacred things may be profane at certain times, an example he gives is the case of the Azande , who, when their shrines were not in ritual use, were used as props to rest their spears. This analysis of the sacred and the profane was extended to all religions by Durkheim and his followers, making a focus on what is similar about what they each do, and about the integrative functions all these religions perform on their social systems. He therefore viewed religion within the context of the entire society and acknowledged its place in influencing the thinking and behaviour of the members of society. Furthermore he believed that order flowed from con sensus, from the existence of shared norms and values, for him the key cause of social upheaval stems from anomie, the lack of regulating norms. Without norms constraining behaviour, explains Durkheim, humans develop insatiable appetites, limitless desires and general feelings of irritation and dissatisfaction. Radcliffe-Brown continued Durkheims sociological perspective of society; he particularly focused on the institutions of kinship and descent and suggested that, at least in tribal societies, they determined the character of family organization, politics, economy, and inter-group relations. Thus, in structural-functionalist thought, individuals are not significant in and of themselves but only in terms of their social status: their position in patterns of social relations. When regarding religious ceremonies Radcliffe-Brown contends that ceremonies, for example, in the form of communal dancing, promoted unity and harmony and functioned to enhance social solidarity and the survival of the society, in this he agreed with another renowned anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski. Malinowskis functionalism was highly influential in the 1920s and 1930s, a British anthropologist, he conducted one of the first major studies of religion from an ethnocentric perspective, on the people of the Trobriand Islands. The first anthropologist to undertake a long-term piece of field research, Malinowski lived among the Trobriand islanders for four years. In studying the functions of religion in a small scale, he agreed with Durkheim that religion reinforced social norms, values and promoted social solidarity. Malinowski also believed that religion could relieve social anxiety and could provide a sense of security especially when people are faced with situations in which they have no control, an example Malinowski gives is based on his observation of the Trobriand islanders fishing in a calm lagoon, no religious practice was attached, however when faced with the perils of fishing in the open ocean, religious rituals were always performed. In this way Malinowski believed huma ns could exert a perceived control over a world in which they held no significant, individual power. This individual, perceived control can be seen to be used by people facing a personal crisis. Often in a situation where they have no control over the outcome, people will turn to religion looking for guidance and sanctuary; thereby giving them a sense of power. For Malinowski then, religion also helped to conciliate periods of life crises and events such as death, marriage and birth, these rituals, known as rites of passage are marked by ceremonies, that by their very nature, are a form of social togetherness that help to create social order and contentment. These rites however can be seen to be controlled in that to a certain extent one is prepared for new life, death and marriage, these events form part the circle of life and therefore come with some prior knowledge. Ceremonies that relate to these life events could be seen as a predictable common bond that will help to reinforce social solidarity. Malinowski argues that religion minimizes the disruption, in particular, of death. He believes that the assertion of immortality gives rise to feelings of comfort for the bereaved, whilst the act of a funeral ceremony binds the survivors together. Coser (1977) explains further: Religion can counter a sense of loss, which, as in the case of death, may be experienced on both the individual and the collective level therefore religion as a social institution serves to give meaning to mans existential predicaments by tying the individual to that supra-individual sphere of transcendent values which is ultimately rooted in his society. So far we have seen that collective or communal gatherings are generally aimed at promoting social solidarity and cohesion, this is backed by the empirical evidence offered by Malinowski in his study of the Trobriand Islands. Hamilton (1995) offers that these gatherings can also be interpreted as involving the recognition of divisions, conflict and disharmonies inherent in the society and rituals may be seen as a means of coping with and defusing them. Concerning Malinowskis empirical evidence, a contrasting point is noted by Casanova (1995) who questions functionalism on empirical grounds, he argues that religion does not provide consensus and unity, instead he says that most conflicts [an example he gives is the Iran/Iraq war] in society have religious foundations. Marxist sociologists also criticise functionalists on a theoretical level. Marx claims that religion does not create societal consensus, instead it creates conflict between those that have wealth in the ruling class and those that do not in the working class. Therefore according to Marx, the only norms and values that are conserved by religion are those of the ruling class. Functionalist theory could therefore be said to neglect the areas in which religion has been dysfunctional for society, whereby religious divisions have caused disruption and conflict rather than promoting social order. History provides numerous examples of this including the aforementioned Iran/Ira q dispute, Northern Ireland and Bosnia. An Extreme functionalist assessment of religion, declares William Stevens, is put forward by American sociologist Robert Bellah. Bellah fuses Parsons argument that America derives its values from Protestantism, with Durkheims belief that the worship of god is the disguised worship of society. From this Bellah develops a new kind of religious concept, that of a civil religion. Therefore despite the individual belief systems of American citizens, it is the overarching faith in America that unites Americans. Wallis (1983:44) cited in Jones, explains that Bellah finds evidence of civil religion in Presidential inaugurations and ceremonials such as Thanksgiving Day and Memorial Day are similarly held to integrate families into the civil religion, or to unify the community around its values. A further point to be made here is that generally civil religion does not hold to a belief in the supernatural. Bellah disagrees and says examples of confirmation in the supernatural can be seen or hea rd on a daily basis, phrases such as God Bless America and the words In God we trust on the national currency, he believes are prime examples of this. However Stevens asserts that this is not the god of any particular creed, but a god of America. For Bellah then civil religion creates a social cohesiveness by gathering people together to collectively partake in some form of ceremonial event. Therefore flag waving at a sporting event or lining the street to celebrate a royal marriage or death can bring about a united outpouring of joy or grief that in itself generates order. A contemporary example is the untimely death of Princess Diana. Her funeral witnessed a monumental combining of people, faiths and nations in a symbolic act of grief. Functionalist sociologists tend to emphasize what maintains society, not what changes it and are criticized for being unable to account for social change because it focuses so intently on social order and equilibrium in society. Functionalists have to take into account that change does happen in societies and that change is a good thing, and can represent progress. Jones says that the functionalist way around this is to use an organic analogy social progress occurs as it does with organisms as an evolutionary change. Bilton et al explain that this takes shape in the form of structural differentiationdifferentiation is a type of splitting or separation of a previously undivided unit, the new units differ in that they are more specialised in the functions they perform. Talcott Parsons, in his approach to social change, emphasises differentiation. According to Parsons, Institutions change, if the need of the system changes. An example of a system change stems from The Industrial Revol ution, which was facilitated by capitalism, was increasingly demanding technological advances to increase profit. In order to make this possible there was a need for more educated workforces. As a result the industrial economy needed a new form of family to perform these specialist functions. Thus, as one aspect of society changed the economy and production it required a comparable change in the educational system, bringing social life back into equilibrium. This new modernization of society, explains Marske, is associated with the increasing indifference of the individual from the traditional social bonds of an intimate network of diffuse social relationships. Due to a greater demand in the workforce people from all walks of life came together causing an increase in the cultural diversity within a particular society. As a result individuality became a more prominent feature; religion it seems was becoming less social and more personal. Durkheim would disagree with this statement as he believed it was possible to be an individual as well as social institution, he explains, In reality, the religion of the individual is a social institution like all known religions. It is society which assigns us this ideal as the sole common end which is today capable of providing a focus for mens wills. Dillon (2003) explains that social scientists and Western intellectuals have been promising the end of Religion for centuries, Comte announced that, as a result of modernization, human society was outgrowing the theological stage of social evolution and a new age was dawning which the science of sociology would replace religion as the basis or moral judgements. Durkheim predicted the gradual decrease in formal world religions; in post-enlightenment society he felt that there would be a greater emphasis on the individual. This he believed would lead to a weakening of ties in the modern world. In addition he envisaged that social solidarity and the collective conscience would be taken up by other institutions that would evolve into new forms of religious experience. Furthermore a maturing modernity would see scientific thinking replace religious thinking. As a consequence, Durkheim considered the concept of God to be on the verge of extinction. In its place he envisioned society as promoting civil religion, in which, for example, civic celebrations, parades, and patriotism take the place of church services. If traditional religion were to continue, he believed it would do so only as a means to preserve social cohesion and order. Parsons disagrees with this synopsis, with modern life will come structural frameworks that are more competitive and specialised, however they would still persist because religion is an adaptable structural framework for the explanation of inexplicable social phenomena. A criticism applied to the functionalists perspective stems from Durkheims analogy that societies and social institutions have personalities. To imagine that a society is a living, breathing organism is a difficult concept when in fact it is seen as an inorganic object. This creates what can said to be a philosophical problem and an ontological argument that society does not have needs as a human being does; and even if society does have needs they need not be met. The view here is that society is alive in the sense that it is made up of living individuals. What is not taken into account is that each individual is a different entity, with their own wants and needs. As part of the unit they can function and integrate within the group as a viable member. However individual life choices may not always create a positive function for the society as a whole. Functionalists in general tend to have a too positive view by believing that everything that exists in society does so because it has some kind of functional purpose. Robert Merton believed that it was entirely plausible for society to have dysfunctional elements. Durkheim also recognised that some forms of social life could be seen in the same way, however he did not use the term dysfunctional. In his work on crime, he noted that crime was functional to society, this seems to be a contradiction in that he also said, too high a level of crime might not be functional, because it could create a state of confusion regarding what constitutes the norms that applied to peoples lives. As a society dysfunctional actions, in particular criminal actions are frowned upon, and as a society we can become mob-handed in the way people come together to condemn an act of crime. Durkheim has a point to make here in that, people combine together, forming a collective cohesion in defining themselves against what they are not. Picturing society like a vast machine, Merton argues that a society should best be considered as a cross bet ween the cultural goals of a society-what it holds its members should strive for-and the means that are believed, legally or morally, to be legitimate ways that individuals should attain these goals. In an ideally organized society, the means will be available to deliver all of its members to their goals. One must take into account when analysing such theories that at the time of writing the world was a very different place to the one we live in today. Social anthropology has come under criticism for looking into primitive societies as a representation of unchanged societies criticism in particular stems from the lack of historical records that could confirm or deny any findings. Radcliffe-Brown considered this type of work a mistakehis belief was that the religious and ritual systems had to be understood in the context of the existing society and their role in that society. One could linger on Durkheims prediction that religion would decrease with modernity, religion here being in reference to the act of attending a social gathering in the worship of some form, whether it be totemic or divine. However an important point to note is that at the time when the Sociology of Religion was in its infancy, religious practice was more of a regular occurrence than one would perhaps find in todays society. However individuals are still irrevocably influenced by the role of religion in their own lives. Their beliefs and values allow them to feel supported in their everyday life; religion sets aside certain values and infuses them with special significance. Culture plays an important part here, as values, customs and beliefs combine to become a moral code by which societies adhere to and live by and pass on to future generations. Religion encourages collective worship be it in a church, mosque, temple, home or some other specified gathering place. Through the act of collective worship the individual is encouraged to feel part of a wider community. Today, societies are classed as more secular in their nature, yet if one consider the earlier statement about religion being an important form of social togetherness it would be easy to make analogies with the different groups that make up the society we inhabit. For example schools hold assemblies, awards evenings and performances all which can be seen as an example of community spirit and social cohesion. People as individuals, have interests outside of their immediate social groupings, this does not make them an outcast or outsider, and instead it promotes a sense of identity, individualism and the self. The writings of sociologists such as Durkheim, Comte, Radcliffe-Brown and Parsons are still important today, especially in comparing the way society sees religion. However, in contemporary society sociologists have a different set of problems to contend with as belief in modern society and materialism for many becomes a more vital moral value than partaking in a religious practice . BIBLIOGRAPHY Beckford, James A. (2003) Social Theory and Religion, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). Bilton et al, Introductory sociology 3rd Edn (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998). Casanova, Jose, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995) Christiano, Kevin J., William Swatos Jr Peter Kivisto, Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments Lanham, 2nd edition (MD: Rowman Littlefield publishers, 2008). Comte, Auguste, A Dictionary of Sociology (3rd Ed), John Scott Gordon Marshall (eds), (Oxford: OUP, 2005). Coser, Lewis A. Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context, 2nd Ed., (Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977), pp. 136-139, Coser, Lewis A. Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context, 2nd Ed., Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1977: 136-139, Dewar, Greg, Religious studies, Philosophy and Ethics, (London: Oxford University Press, 2002). Dillon, Michele, Handbook of the sociology of religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). Durkheim, Emile, The Division of Labor in Society. Translated by, George Simpson. (New York: Free Press, 1893/1964). Durkheim, Emile, and Coser, Lewis A., The Division of Labor in Society. (Free Press, 1997) Durkheim, Emile. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: A Study in Religious Sociology. Translated by, Joseph Ward Swain. (New York: Macmillan, 1915). E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Theories of primitive religion, (Oxford: Clarendon press, 1965). Emile Durkheim, Sociology and philosophy (New York: free press, 1974). Evans-Pritchard, E. E. Social Anthropology and Other Essays. ( London,1950).Contains a critique of Radcliffe-Browns functionalism from the perspective of historicism. Fulcher, J. Scott, J. Sociology, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). Giddens, Anthony, Durkheim, (London: Harper Collins, 1996). Goldschmidt Walter, Functionalism In Encyclopaedia of Cultural Anthropology, Vol 2. David Levinson and Melvin Ember, (eds) (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1996), p. 510. Hamilton, M, The sociology of religion, 2nd edition (Oxon: Routledge, 2001). Hunt, S. Religion in Western Society, (Hampshire: Palgrave, 2002). Jones, Pip, Introducing Social Theory, (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003). Jones, Robert Alun., Rules of the sociological method 1895, in Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works. (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1986), pp. 60-81. Macionis, J. Plummer, K. Sociology: A Global Introduction (Essex: Pearson, 2005). Merton, Robert, Social Theory and Social Structure, (USA: Macmillan, 1968), chapter 3. Orenstein, Ashley D. DM, Sociological theory: Classical statements 6th edition (Boston: Pearson Education, 2005), pp. 3-5: 32-36. Sociology Quarter, Durkheim as a functionalist, vol 16 no 3 (Summer, 1975), pp 36 -379. Thompson, Kenneth, (1982) Emile Durkheim, (Sussex: Ellis Horwood Limited, 1982). Winthrop, Robert H. 1991. Functionalism In Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), p. 130. WEBLIOGRAPHY Functionalism, in Anthropology and Sociology The Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia. 2000-2007 Pearson Education, publishing as Infoplease. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0819881.html (Accessed: 18.01.10). Functions OF religion learningat.ke7.org.uk/socialsciences/soc-sci/soc/a2/R. Accessed 14.1.10. CliffsNotes.com. Introduction to Religion. http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-2695,articleId-26927.html. Accessed 10.1.10 Chris Livesey, Functionalist perspectives on Durkheim, www.sociology.org.uk Marjolin, Robert French sociology-Comte and Durkheim, University of Chicago press American journal of sociology, vol. 42, no 5 (Mar., 1937), pp693 -704. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2767763 (Accessed: 12.1.10.). Mark Glazer, Functionalism http://www.utpa.edu/faculty/mglazer/theory/functionalism.htm (Accessed: 13.12.09). Marske, Charles E, (1987) Durkheims Cult of the Individual and the Moral Reconstitution of Society, Sociological Theory, Vol. 5, No. 1, (American Sociological Association, 1987), pp. 1-14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/201987. Accessed: 17.01.10. The Azande, http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/EthnoAtlas/Hmar/Cult_dir/Culture.7829 (Accessed: 15/1/10). William J. Stevens, Religion: A Functionalist Assessment, http://www.helium.com/items841304-religion-a-functionalist-assessment. (Accessed: 24.11.09).

What Christians Believe About The Death Of Jesus :: Papers

What Christians Believe About The Death Of Jesus Different denominations are all united in their belief of the death of Jesus. As a result of Jesus' death on the cross, he redeemed humanity. Through its sinful behaviour the human race had effectively sold itself to Satan, but Jesus had to pay the necessary price to buy it back. Christians believed that when God sent his only son, Jesus Christ to die on the cross, he saved us all from sin and reunited with God. Therefore, Jesus is seen to Christians as a ransom, which was paid in order for the world to be at atonement with God once again. Jesus was sinless, and was God incarnate as well as man, and so his death was able to redeem mankind. We are once again reminded of Jesus' sacrifice in order to be reconciled with God, when he is referred to as the second Adam, as he corrected the fall of mankind (Adam & Eve). Christians also argue that the death of Jesus was inevitable; he had to die, for humanity couldn't be redeemed without him being sacrificed. The bible teaches us this. It teaches us that God is merciful, but he is also just, so our sins have to be paid for. The Crucifix holds symbolism for Roman Catholics as well as Protestants. Roman Catholics see it as a symbol of Jesus death, therefore having a crucifix with Jesus on. Protestants however, see it as a symbol of Jesus' resurrection therefore having a plain crucifix. Jesus if often referred to as 'The lamb of God'. This can be compared with the Old Testament (Exodus) where an innocent lamb would be sacrificed each year at Passover. Jewish people did this, as they believed that by shedding the blood of an innocent lamb and painting it upon their doors, they would be spared by the angel of death. Jesus is like the lamb that is sacrificed in order to spare the Jews lives. An example of this today can be found at mass where the congregation

Voodoo :: essays research papers fc

Voodoo Fon is spoken by over half the people of Benin and it is the mother tongue of voodoo. In Fon the root word for voodoo is vodoun that means spirit or god. Voodoo had its origins over 350 years ago in West Africa. In fact Allada, a small town in Benin, is often called the 'cradle of voodoo'. In 1996, January 10th became National Voodoo Day in honor of its followers that make up 65% of Benin population. The religion Vodoun was a by-product of the slave trade. This Yoruban religion was carried to Haiti in a slave trade from Dahomey, which is currently called Benin. Once in Haiti, the slaves were forced to adopt Catholicism. Desiring to keep their native practices, the slaves continued to perform their rituals in private. They transposed Catholic saints onto the tribal deities, called loa, to please their owners. Instead of hindering the faith of the slaves, the incorporation of the saints added something new to their religion. Because of this they included into their rituals statues of the saints, candles, and other Christian relics. It is combinations like this that form religions such as Santeria, a blend of Voodoo and Spanish Catholicism, that proves what a malleable religion it is. Voodoo has spread throughout the world into major communities on Rio de Janeiro, New Orleans, Miami, and New York city. Vodoun has as many as 50 million followers throughout the world now.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although varieties of this religion occur in different regions there are some basic tenets common among them. They all believe that the pulse of life resides in nature's elements like fire or wind. This force is also in union with the dead and thus fosters a belief that they should be respected through rituals. They believe that all things are the creation of the loa, and at the same time part of the lao and are to be servants to them. The loa take part in our world and act as intermediaries between human being and the higher god, Bodye. The practitioners of Vodoun believe that when a soul dies it become a sprit or loa. These spirits often 'posses' the living during rituals. When 'possessed' the believer dances, offers animal sacrifices, falls into a trance, or may even disappear. When these rituals are performed a group (societe) come together in a sanctuary (hounfort) where they are revolved around a priest (hougan) or priestess (mamba). These societes are crucial in the structure within small Haitian villages. They are positive forces in establishing communal cohesion and over-riding gender barriers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For whatever good is served, Voodoo can also bring evil.

Effect of Solvent Exposure and Temperature on Beet Cell Membrane

The Effect of Solvent Exposure and Temperature on Beet Cell Membrane Integrity Introduction: Cell membranes are vital to proper cellular function †¢ Cell membranes consist of a lipid bilayer made up of phospholipids †¢ Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules meaning they have a dual nature in that they show both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-fearing) properties †¢ The amphipathic nature of phospholipids causes them to spontaneously form bilayers in water based solutions o The inner and outer surfaces of the bilayers are hydrophilic and can interact with the aqueous environment, while the core of the bilayer is hydrophobic and able to exclude water and other polar molecules o Because of these properties, phospholipids bilayers are able to serve multiple functions including: ? act as barriers to protect the cell from the outside environment ? house proteins and carbohydrates necessary for cell to cell and extracellular communication ? rganize and prov ide surface areas for metabolic reactions †¢ While the phospholipids bilayer is a highly organized system with multiple functions, it is also highly dynamic and can be functionally described using the fluid mosaic model (FMM) o FMM characterizes the phospholipids bilayer of the cell membrane as highly dynamic and fluid meaning that the position (location) of any given phospholipids in the membrane is not fixed but fluid; thus, individual phospholipids can change positions are needed based on the current conditions. o Similarly proteins and carbohydrates are generally mobile in the membrane as well. †¢ This experiment was aimed at investigating the conditions that affect cell membrane integrity. o Because cell membranes are part of a living system they are sensitive to environmental conditions o Like most biological systems, cell membranes show a relatively narrow range of function with respect to pH, temperature, and exposure to organic solvents †¢ The experimental mo del employed was red beets Red beet cells contain large, membrane bound central vacuoles that house a pigment, betacyanin o When cell and vacuole membranes are in tact, betacyanin in contained within the cell o If the cell and vacuole membranes are disrupted, betacyanin can leak in the surrounding solution turning it pink o Higher amounts of membrane damage will lead to more leakage of betacyanin pigment from the cells. The more pigment present the higher the absorbance reading. o Therefore, betacyanin release, as determined by measuring absorbance, serves as a proxy for quantifying membrane damage. †¢ In this experiment, we tested the effect of changing two environmental conditions on cell membrane integrity.First, we tested the effect of temperature on cell membranes o To accomplish this we exposed beet cells to temperatures ranging from -5(C to 70(C o Because cell membranes maintain integrity under a narrow range of conditions, we hypothesize that exposure to higher temperat ures (50-70(C) and extreme low temperatures (-5(C) will cause severe damage to the cell membranes which will result in higher amounts of betacyanin being released from the cells. †¢ We also tested the effect of exposing beet cells to two different solvents o Methanol and acetone are organic solvents capable of dissolving hydrophobic species such as phospholipids o Acetone is generally considered a stronger organic solvent compared with methanol o Thus, we hypothesize that exposure to acetone will cause more damage to beet cell membranes compared with exposure to methanol.Additionally, we hypothesize that higher concentrations of acetone will cause more damage than lower concentrations. Similarly, higher concentrations of methanol will also cause more damage. Results (the data numbers are for example only and meant to reflect the general trend in the class; data from individual groups will vary): †¢ Experiment 1: The effect of temperature on cell membrane integrity o We tes ted the effect of exposing beet cells to various temperatures ranging from -5(C to 70(C. (Question) o To do this, uniform pieces of beet were placed in empty test tubes then incubated at a specific temperature. (How the question was addressed) ?Following this water was added to the test tube and the cells were incubated for 20 minutes. ? After incubation, the water was transferred to a clean tube and absorbance at 425 nm was determined. o Absorbace readings were similar at temperatures of 5? C, 25? C, 40? C, 55? C, and 70? C (A425 0. 25-0. 30) (Figure 1) (Experimental data) o Incubation at -5? C showed a dramatic increase in absorbance (A460 = 0. 95) (Figure 1) (Experimental data) o We conclude from this data that temperatures ranging from 5-70? C have only minor effects on cell membrane integrity. In contrast; exposure of cells to a temperature below freezing causes much more membrane damage. (Conclusion) Experiment 2: The effect of solvent on cell membrane integrity o We tested wh ether exposure to two different organic solvents, methanol and acetone, disrupted cell membrane integrity (Question) o Beet cells were incubated in 10%, 25%, and 50% methanol or 10%, 25%, and 50% acetone. Additionally, additionally cells were also incubated in saline, a solvent that mimics physiological conditions. (How the question was addressed) ? Following exposure to solvent, membrane damage was determined by measuring absorbance. o Incubation in 10% or 25% methanol yielded absorbance readings of 0. 2 and 0. 25 respectively; however, incubation in 50% methanol showed an increase in absorbance to 0. 5. Figure 2) (Experimental data) o Incubation in 10% or 25% acetone produced higher absorbance readings compared to the same concentrations of methanol (0. 4 and 0. 42 respectively). Similar to 50% methanol, 50% acetone yielded the highest absorbance reading of 0. 8 (Figure 2). (Experimental data) o Taken together, these data show that acetone causes more membrane damage than methanol and that concentrations of 50% solvent are more damaging than lower concentrations. (Conclusion) Overall Conclusion: †¢ We hypothesized that temperatures outside of the normal physiological range would disrupt membrane integrity causing betacyanin to leak out of the cells. Our data shows that our hypothesis was partly correct, low temperature, -5? C, inflicts the most damage to cell membranes while higher temperatures, ranging from 55-70? C induce little damage when compared with physiological temperatures. †¢ We also hypothesized that exposure to high concentration organic solvents would disrupt membrane integrity and that acetone, being a stronger solvent, would show more damage than methanol. o In this case our hypothesis was support. Acetone showed more damage as measured by betacyanin release than methanol. Additionally, the highest concentration of each solvent showed the most damage. Data: [pic] Figure 1: The effect of temperature on cell membrane integrity.Cells w ere exposed to temperatures ranging from -5C to 70C. Following incubation at the indicated temperature, water was added and the cells were allowed to incubate at room temperature for 20 minutes. Damage to cell membrane integrity was assessed by quantifying leakage of the pigment betacyanin via measuring light absorbance at 460 nm. [pic] Figure 2: The effect of solvent on cell membrane integrity. Cells were incubated in the presence of methanol, acetone, or saline at the indicated concentrations. Following incubation, damage to cell membrane integrity was assessed by quantifying leakage of the pigment betacyanin via measuring light absorbance at 460 nm.